For
this essay my aims will be to deconstruct and analyse both post-modernist
films, and works relating to the philosophical schooling of existentialism.
The focus of my own film is to tell the
story of what is possibly the last few days of a man's life through existential
reflection. The story will be driven by the conventional distortions of the
post-modern narrative, and at the same time the protagonist’s internal dilemma
of a self-fulfilling prophecy coming to fruition. Put simply, it is the
analysis of a man's change in behaviour when he is presented with the possibility
of a life-changing situation.
In order to do this effectively it is
important to understand all of the themes and each of their individual coded
conventions. For example post-modernism is a reaction to modernism, and because
of this it is important to examine how the two differ from one another. Looking
at the reactions, which caused this change in conventional behaviour.
Another interesting factor to this
study is the examination of the self-fulfilling prophecy. The idea of the
self-fulfilling prophecy has been around since the times of the ancient Greeks.
An example of this being Sophocles’ Oedipus
the King (2008), in which it is prophesized that he will one day kill his
father. He is then abandoned as a baby and raised in another kingdom. Hearing
of the previous prophecy he leaves his adopted family and unknowingly kills his
biological father. However the behaviour and term itself were only truly
defined in the mid-20th century. (Merton, 1949)
Also I will attempt to go into great
detail on the philosophical schooling of existentialism, that focuses on a
persons understanding of the world in relation to themselves. With much of fiction
in film driven by its story orientation, using its characters as toys to play
out the narrative, existentialism takes the opposite approach instead choosing
to focus on the individual, and allowing the thoughts and actions of a film’s
protagonists to drive the narrative.
Throughout this study I will also
examine three selected films, each of which deal differently with my selected
themes. Allowing me to examine examples with different combinations and variations
over varying spaces in time. Analysing such features as the individual films plot,
story and character development. The films I've chosen to focus on being Citizen Kane (1941), examining the life
of the media baron Charles Foster Kane as a young reporter tries to find out
the meaning behind his dying word “Rosebud." A Clockwork Orange (1971) about a fifteen year-old Alex, a highly
intelligent criminal who defies convention on what mainstream society often projects
as a typical thug. Another post-modern film with existential themes is The Rules of Attraction (2002), in which
the story revolves around three seemingly pessimistic college students, each of
whom takes turns in narrating the film of instances relating to them.
This will in turn improve my understanding of these themes
and how they had previously been put into practice in different works. Other
examples will of course be discussed however it is just that these films are
closer related to my study.
So what is post-modernism and how was it defined through the
film medium? In order to answer this must we must first observe and analyse its
cultural stance to modernism. Modernism being defined by fixed constructs and
conventions, it is the idea that we consciously construct ideas and manipulate
materials for deployment. (Booker, 2007) As these conventions were formed,
materials were manipulated in a way to make the process seem as seamless as
possible. For instance with the technique of the invisible cut, seen in all
modernist films but a good example being The
Birth of a Nation (1915) where
the cut is hidden through the matching of action on each shot. (Wendy Apple,
2004). In modernist films through techniques such as the invisible cut the
audience is drawn into a false reality where everything that could be done was to avoid the audience being drawn into the filmmaking process.
This is very much opposed to in post-modern film. For instance
one of the first films that could attribute or retain to being post-modern was
Vertov's Man With a Movie Camera (1929).
The film itself contains some very self-reflexive content, with references to
the filmmaking process. It also appears not to attain to creating an overlaying
story. Instead allowing each individual sequence to be seen as individual
unconscious thought. In relation to these aspects of the film, Slavoj Zizek
(2008, p158) describes the creative process of post-modernism as “the moment we
get rid of the perspective of illusion: what appears, within modernism, as the
limit impending the subject’s self-expression," the key focus here being
ridding the audience of previously manipulated illusions. In the film Vertov
includes shots of the film camera, his cinematographers, the editors and even shots
of film being edited. Here, effectively breaking the fourth wall to his
audience; the action of addressing the audience directly. Instead of focusing
on a story that the images are to convey, the film focuses more on the images
themselves. (Booker, 2007, p135)
But what other aspects convey the post-modern film? Postmodernism
is often defined by its breaking of conventional forms, for example the idea
that the audience should not see the production process, manipulating
conventions and bending them to its own means. None more so than the genre
parody films. These films both mocked and reflect upon pre-established genre
conventions. Through the audience’s cultural understanding, they are able to
laugh and enjoy satirical versions of scenes seen in other well-known films. Joseph
Natoli (1994, p14) describes the
situation as one of the factors of “The journey from modernity to
post-modernity, a journey which displacement replaces hierarchy," he
digresses that this, “has proliferated the number of dissenting cultural
narratives" (Natoli, 1994, p14). So as post-modernist filmmakers have
displaced the hierarchal genre system. Rather than destroy the confinement of
genre codes, they have instead added to them. This has been done by combining
the previous codes and conventions of modernist genres, which in turn has
created new ones.
Post-modern cinema is often seen as a
combination of past influences and the distorted issues of the present. Many
view the attributes of post-modern film through its fragmented nature, as a
distortion to the story. Others view this a more revealing realistic form of
representation. Stripping away the falsities of the modernist synthetic utopia.
Academics such as (Booker, 2007; Levy, 1999; and Zizek, 2008), have all engaged
in this aspect of the post-modern. With their analysis ending each with varying
conclusions.
When discussing his views on
fragmentation in postmodern film Booker (2007, p2) stated “the increasing
fragmentation of postmodern film can in many ways be seen as a logical
extension of older montage techniques and indeed of the evolution of film
itself." To him this is a positive move for cinema allowing filmmakers
more freedom in their practice that may eventually lead to the advancement in
audience engagement.
Levy (1999, p56) however sees the
effects of postmodern film on the overall landscape of cinema as having a much
more negative effect, suggesting that “The diverse, referential,
self-reflexive, collagelike character of post modern film draws inspiration
from the decline of the classical Hollywood metanarrative." What he is
claiming here is that not only has postmodernist film had an overall negative effect
on the modernist genre orientated metanarratives, but that if the current trend
continues that it will effectively kill the previous conventional forms. The
more prominent postmodern film becomes, the further modernist film declines. In
some ways this is true however this is not quite the case. Postmodernist film
hasn’t as Levy suggested caused a wider disintegration of previously conformed
cultural metanarratives. Instead as postmodern films has become more prominent their
referential style has seen an expansion of previous genre standings. Films are
still analysed and grouped into pre-standing genres nevertheless with the
addition of new subgenres formed throughout the postmodern age. An example of
this being the horror comedy, which as the name clearly suggests, mocks defined
conventions, sequences and characters that have appeared throughout the horror
genre. One example of this is Scary Movie
(2000) that uses scenes and characters from other movies played to comedic
effect. And yet these parody / homages to the genre haven’t seen the decline of
other sub genres such as the slasher or haunted house pictures as Levy in the
previous statement indicated it would.
With most of these opinions being
rather vague all to some extent bias. It is Zizek (2008, p141) who gives the
most clear and concise comment on the fragmented nature of postmodernism,
concluding that “Post-modernism thus accomplishes a kind of shift of
perspective in relation to modernism: what in modernism appeared as the subverse
margin–symptoms in which the repressed truth of the “faults" totality
emerges–is now displaced into the very heart, as the hard core the Real that
different attempts of symbolisation endeavour in vain to integrate and to
“gentrify."
In
this he is saying that Modernism intentionally or unintentionally, suppresses
the truth through its conformist nature. With Modernist film-forcing filmmakers
into a position where they had to subvert their materials to previously
categorical constructs. But these in turn suppress the artist's ability to
symbolise freely. Instead artists were still being limited to the gentry of
conformity. By means of the displacement of the post-modern however, filmmakers
were given much more freedom of the narratives. Allowing them to present
sequences and events in orders of their own choosing. This truly affected the
use of narrative in films though, as now filmmakers were freer to manipulate
time and space in the interests of the representation of an event itself. Whereas
with previous Modernist films where the narrative was manipulated as a
supporting device for the story. Films could now be manipulated in a way as to
the narrative being the key creative tool in directing the audience’s opinion
around a particular character or event.
And it is here, in the first person
narrative of the post-modern era that I wish to focus on. Which now brings me
onto the subject of existentialism. Existentialism is the philosophical
schooling with the focus on examining the human existence. The origins of
existentialism began to appear in post world war two France in the influential
writings of Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus and Simone de Beauvoir (Seigneuret,
1988). In Seigneuret’s writings he suggests
existentialism attempts to say that people in society should be defined by
their own individuality. That people should not be viewed in their relation to
prior concepts of mass society. Instead that we should look at a person’s own
individual understanding of society and their own internal values. (1988, p
485)
In the book The
Existential Imagination Hamalian and Karl (1973) both state that in essence
existentialism is the theory that, “It is only man in his consciousness which
matter, and all philosophy must be in terms of man's existence, that is,
existential." Here they reinforce my opinion that existentialism is the
internal questionings of the struggles of man. They also continue to push the
idea that to look at and engage in an investigation of the wider society and
social structures would not truly help in the analysis of individuality. For
the subject of internal needs vary from person to person.
Like
conformism, the Modernist drama remains very subjective. Laying its information
out to the audience members as externally as possible. David Galen's (2003,
p60) explains “Unlike existential fiction, which focused on the internal
struggle for beliefs, drama does not present internal thoughts to the audience
at all, and so can focus its energies on the strange instability of the
external world.” So by this standing existential fiction cannot be recognized
in the traditional drama form. As drama aims to capture the emotions of events
concerning wider mass culture, existentialism puts itself opposed to this. Instead
focusing on our internal struggles and the impossibility of understanding
humanities self-worth in the wider question of existence.
So what
is it then that defines a focal character of existential fiction? In a world
where they are one among billions of individuals, it would be easy to fall into
group surroundings although this is never the case. As protagonists of
existential fiction standout, instead pushing to make judgments of their own. Choosing
to define their own rudimental being, whether through choice or social needs. Hamalian and Karl (1973, p12) state that the characters are
hereby “stripped of tradition, custom, or belief–must make his own decisions,
find his own truths". By the tone of the comment we can tell that this to
them has an overall negative effect on the protagonists of existential fiction.
The use of the word “must” puts into the mind of the reader a forced change in
the characters perspective. Nevertheless one of the defining aspects of
existentialism is the understanding that we as people have freedom of choice. An
ability that allows us to create our own ideas and opinions and not just rely
on the stories of others to create meanings.
In my film the protagonist Adam is presented with a
situation, which could be read many ways depending on how an individual chooses
to define it. Here he is presented with a prophecy in a dream sequence. In this
an
event is prophesised, which may take place in a few days time. He
becomes deeply concerned about the possible truth in this idea. However it
constantly remains cautious around such factual ideals. Reacting in a seemingly
strange way a work colleague asks him about what is troubling him. Informing
the colleague about the dream, he in turn gives Adam his opinion on what it could
possibly mean. Adam listens to the advice and although he believes the
information to be good, we hear through narration that he is unable to do as
his friend suggests. Because while he is able to recognise the authenticity of
the advice, he knows that he himself wouldn't be able to just ignore this
prophecy. While for others the advice may be positive furthermore eventually
encouraging them to forget the previously prophesised events. Adam knows that
as the sort of person he is, that he wouldn't be able to simply forget this so
easily. For as an existential character, Adam is but one individual in a crowd
of billions who must find his own path.
But how is it that a character truly defines his or her
self-concept? There is always going to be some semblance of cultural influence
of course. However we should just focus on how a character defines their
self-image. Brian McHale (1992, p46) suggested that a persons understanding of society
comes from our own contextualising of information. He puts it that “A
characters interior construction of the world diverges the authorial projection
of it, and the “angle" of this divergences serves to inform us about the
structure of this character's consciousness." By this we can understand
that when a character receives information they do not immediately act on this.
Instead, when information is received the character contextualises it according
to their general understandings of subject or the concerned matter. Once an
understanding is reached the information is acted upon. As a result of
continual use of this method we can create more multi-layered characters. Giving
the audience an opportunity to conclude on their own opinions on particular
aspects of the characters personality.
One of the defining features of my own film will be the
revelation of the prophecy. Which in itself is the key driving force behind the
characters actions. However the aesthetic of the prophecy itself I wish to
remain open to interpretation. This way the audience can be allowed to argue
and come up with amongst each other their individual conclusions. Giving the
audience a greater connection with the work by allowing them to relate the
prophet to religious and intellectual interpretation. Or to put it simply,
embodying ones own opinions. By doing this it requires a particular type of
audience construction, which in turn causes theoretical breaking of the forth
wall. Triggering audiences to examine them selves in order to interpret the
film. This is achieved through as Booker (2007, p154) puts it “ blurring of the separation between fiction and
reality as part of a more general withering of boundaries (between genres,
between high and low culture, and so one) that is typical of post-modern culture."
As
previously discussed post-modernism is a reflection on modernism. In which
previously defined conventions are juxtaposed to create something new. The same
can be said in terms of existential fiction and drama. With the existential
being the focus on the internal subject and drama being the focus on the
external. “Unlike existential fiction, which focused on the internal struggle for
beliefs, drama does not present internal thoughts to the audience at all, and
so can focus its energies on the strange instability of the external world.” (Galens,
2003)
Then what is it exactly that truly defines the existential
being. This was probably stated best by Coltrera (1962, p166) saying that “Existentialism,
in its chosen role as chorus to our age chants a sad litany: we are born into
this world alone, live in loneliness, and go out of this world alone. Death is
sure and the nothingness beyond it arouses dread. We have known original sin,
and guilt is the condition of our existence. We are separated, each from the
other, by the tradition and ways of our present culture and times. Existentialism
tells us that these are the conditions of existence, and to be aware of
existence is to know them. To do something about his lot man must come to life
with a sense of "engagement." To the given moment of
"engagement" man must present himself as an intensity and entirety.” This
statement in itself relates heavily to the principals of not just my own film,
but also to my three examples. In A Clockwork Orange (1971) the
character of Alex’s sense of engagement from the world comes from his own urges
to commit violent crime, this being what he enjoys and gains from. When his
ability to commit such acts is taken away from him, he is unable to relate to
the world and engage in acts that previously stimulated him. Because of this
and the abandonment of his friends and family he has become isolated to the
world. His ability to freely choose as well as express himself has been removed
by the government in order to make him a law-abiding citizen. But in the
process he has become as the title reveals, a “Clockwork Orange”, a living
thing that will only do as it was designed to do.
A similar instance changes the life of Charles Foster Kane
in Citizen Kane (1941) where as a
young boy his parents give him away to a wealthy banker. This sets in motion
the way in which Kane reacts socially with other people. Through the seeming
abandonment of his parents he constantly strives for the attention of others. Whether
through friends, colleagues, or his wives, Kane persistently aspires to receive
the attention and devotion of others. However the more he receives the more it
is not enough. From being a well-respected media mogul he then aims to run for
political office. We are led to believe that he chooses to do this because of
his quest for attention as opposed to a genuine attempt to help others. Although
whether he realises this is debatable, nevertheless this leads to a negative
turn when he is discovered to be having an affair. After this Kane is never
quite the same man and it is only on his deathbed when analysing the events in
his life that he thinks back to the last time when he was truly happy.
Muttering his last word “Rosebud”, that throughout the film is presented as a
possible link to some truth behind Kane as a man. It is, and in the last scene
of the film we see a simple childhood sleigh thrown into a furnace with the
name “Rosebud” on it. This to Kane was a reminder of the simpler times of his
early childhood; to the times in which he felt true love and happiness.
Because of his past Kane as a character often struggled to
connect with others. This is something that occurs quite often in existential fiction,
as protagonists stay wary of their surroundings. In relation to this George
Cotkin (2003, p30) suggested that these characters are “deeply suspicious of human nature,
or at least of the motivations of others. Aware of man’s rapacity and capacity
for sin, the hard-boiled hero seeks to escape illusion. He remains, however, in
danger of surrendering to its allure”. By this he means that because of their
negative opinions of humanity as a whole, these protagonists struggle to relate
to others emotionally. This is usually because of past experiences in their
lives or the way they have previously been treated by others. They in turn remain
hesitant to society and aim to control their own destiny. The character of Alex
in A
Clockwork Orange (1971) shows his distrust of society when he
describes it as the “wicked world.” His frustration with society comes from its
views on him as a person. In the novel this is explained clearer when he
questions the interest of analysing why people are good or bad. In his opinion,
“badness
is of the self, the one, the you or me on our oddy knockies, and that self is
made by old Bog or God and is his great pride and radosty. But the not-self
cannot have the bad, meaning they of the government and the judges and the schools
cannot allow the bad because they cannot allow the self.” (Burgess, 2000)
By this we can
begin to understand more clearly that Alex’s distrust of society comes from his contention with its conformism. In the same
way society is against his violent actions as they go against their ideas of
conformity and moral values. However Alex sees his behaviour as an expression
of himself and his choices. With this thinking he sees society as a destructive
force upon itself; trying to manipulate others to give up their individualism
in order to be part of a larger communal system.
The same distrust of others can be seen in the three
protagonists of The Rules of Attraction
(2002), in which each of the focal characters falls for one another, only
for that individual not to reciprocate those feelings back. In fact this is how
we are introduced to each of these characters in the very first scene, following
the aftermath of the rejection from the person they desired. Because of this
they begin view others and society in a pessimistic manner. They shut out
others to try and avoid being hurt on an emotional level. These closeted emotions
are let out in a scene with Sean and Lauren when she explains, “No one ever
knows anyone. Ever. You will never know me.” But it is this mentality that then
feeds into these same anxieties. Each of them face rejection on some level.
Sean, Paul and Lauren have all been hurt in their attempts to open up. Also
because of this they have become hesitant towards others, which in turn has
caused a domino effect causing each of them to be placed into the same situation.
Yet this does not simply mean that because two people are
presented with the same situation that they will react in the same way. The way
in which an individual reacts to any given situation is based on those persons
own “Self-concept.” (Victor, 1976) A person’s self-concept is created from their
knowledge and understandings of themselves in relation to a larger societal
structure. An example for this might be that a persons view on a subject such
as politics. This may be different from someone of another social class because
of the seemingly different opportunities available to them. Another instance of
this could be the subject of abortion, with people’s views on the subject influenced
by societal stigma and religious beliefs.
Nevertheless
there are a large number of possible influences on a person’s self-concept. But
this is probably summarized best by Michael
Argyle (1969) who broke down the idea of the self-concept into two separate
aspects. These being the self-image, that is the manner that people view
themselves. With the second being a person’s self-esteem, which is the way a
person measures their self worth in relation to wider societal and cultural
structures. To simplify the
self-image is people’s internal views of themselves whereas external forces
influence their self-esteem.
Relating back to The
Rules of Attraction (2002), Sean,
Paul and Lauren have all been hurt in their attempts to open on an emotional
level. Because of this they have all had their self-esteem damaged. Which in
turn has caused a change in their self-image as they have become more wearily
cynical in the way they interact with others.
A similar damaging effect happens in the lifetime of the
character of Charles Kane. As I have previously stated his parents gave him
away as a child. Since this event Kane constantly strives for the loving
attention of others. Kane’s former friend Jedediah Leland puts it best when he
says to a reporter, “That’s all he really wanted out of life was love. That’s
Charlie’s story - how he lost it.” However it is the need for love and
attention that causes the breakup to both of his marriages, with his first
marriage ending after it is discovered he is having an affair. Kane then
proceeds to marry his mistress who he forces into an operatic career. She
eventually decides that she can’t take the pressure and attempts to commit
suicide. She recovers from this however, spending most of her time indoors at
Kane’s mansion. He begins showering her with gifts but stays distant, causing
her to leave him.
This proves too much emotional heartbreak for Kane as
following this he shuts himself away in his mansion. He has changed from an
adventurous young man with a sad childhood into a bitter old man who shuts out
the world. During this time his self-image has changed. He now fears emotional
connections with others because of previous hurt he has received at the hands
of people from his past, with his self-esteem having now been worn down.
Nonetheless
this isn’t to say that these characters are innocent to their positions. Other
than the initial rejection of his mother, it was Kane that caused the breakup
of both of his marriages. By seemingly shutting out others after these events
he has accepted that he will be forever unloved. This idea relates to the self-fulfilling
prophecy, of which Diane Harris (2005, p272-273) describes as “A false
definition of a situation, or a belief which one acts upon, actually manifests
itself as truth and further strengthens the belief.” When Kane shuts away the world
he does so to avoid further hurt but in the process he also stops any
possibility of finding love again. He has in the process come to the conclusion
that opening up to others would only lead to more hurt. But this appears to be
an idea that he has had in his mind for a long time. In fact the idea has been
continually reinforced through his own judgments. His first wife left him
because he was having an affair. So in that process he has caused a kind of
self-affirmation on the subject of love. When he becomes distant to his second
wife this is because he is trying to avoid any more emotional hurt. However
this causes the opposite effect as she ends up leaving him for this exact
reason. Whilst arguing she states “You don’t love me! You want me to love you! Sure,
I’m Charles Foster Kane! Whatever you want – just
name it and it's yours! But you’ve got to love me!”
Kane has eventually allowed his insecurities to overwhelm
him, becoming in the process one of the defining features of his character. In
the same way the characters of Sean, Paul and Lauren have adopted a pessimistic
view on life in relation to others. They accept what’s happened without showing
any optimism in trying to move on or make a positive change in their behaviour.
Instead they seem to wallow in a state of melancholy, as though this is the way
life will always be.
But this in truth is the way they have chosen to think. Each
of the characters I have examined in this essay has through their own judgement
and experiences come to a very similar conclusion. In modernist dramas I have
discussed earlier, the characters of Macbeth and Oedipus allow the outside
influences of a prophecy to manipulate the way they act. In turn this
eventually leads to each of their downfalls. In fact in relation to both Citizen Kane (1941) and The Rules of Attraction (2002) the same
exterior social events cause negative connotations for the protagonists. The
only character who isn’t changed by the events of their narrative is Alex.
However he does for a period of time lose his free will and it is only at the
end of the film he gets it back. Yet out of all of these characters Alex is
amoral and he is the one we would most wish to change his ways.
But this doesn’t mean that all postmodern or existential
fiction protagonists have to have a negative outlook on life. Take for example Annie Hall (1977) in which the
protagonist is dealing with a recent breakup. Through the film we see different
events of his life and their time together. Nonetheless even though the couple
never get back together they do stay good friends. He hasn’t allowed this big
emotional event in his life to change him. Instead it has made him a better person,
who is wiser to the world, now ready to move forward with his life.
With this I would like to conclude on this study. From the
beginning of my research I thought that the idea of the self-fulfilling
prophecy would work as a plot guide, driving the character development. However
this is not the case, as I now believe this to be more of a plot point and
catalyst, causing Adam to change his life for the better. The plot is instead
guided by his memories and his thoughts regarding recent events that have
unfolded in his life. This is then shown in a non-linear style to highlight
their equal importance to him. This is intentionally done in a postmodern
manner. I have also come to a conclusion as to how I am going to mix together
these two opposing styles. By using the device of the split screen in my final
scene I am going to show two alternative outcomes. In one of these outcomes
Adam unable to not think about the predicted prophecy, he goes for a walk to
try and clear his head. Unfortunately while he is doing this an event causes
the prophecy to be fulfilled. The other version of events sees Adam pushing out
his anxieties and simply moving forward by going to sleep. While the version of
Adam that is seriously injured loses consciousness the two images re-merge into
a dream. In truth this shows on a basic level how, as an existential man, Adam
is defined by his choices. By having the two possible outcomes re-merge it
highlights how his decisions can really change his life.
Bibliography
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Films
A Clockwork Orange, 1971.
Film. Directed by Stanley Kubrick. UK/USA: Warner Bros. Pictures.
Annie Hall, 1977. Film. Woody Allen. USA: Rollins-Joffe Productions.
Citizen Kane, 1941. Film.
Directed by Orson Welles. USA: RKO Pictures.
Man With A Movie Camera, 1929.
Film. Dziga Vertov. Soviet Union: VUFKU.
Scary Movie, 2000. Film. Keenen Ivory Wayans.
USA: Dimension Films.
The Birth Of A Nation, 1915. Film. David Llewelyn Wark
Griffith. USA: David W. Griffith Corp.
The Cutting Edge: The Magic
of Movie Editing, 2004. Video. Directed by Wendy Apple. USA: A.C.E.
The Rules Of Attraction, 2002.
Film. Directed by Roger Avery. USA/Germany:
Kingsgate Films.
Journal Entries
Coltrera, JT. (1962). Psychoanalysis and Existentialism. Journal
of the American Psychoanalytic Association. 10 (32), p166.
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